Poor welfare of migrant workers
Since migrant workers have not receive adequate education due to the lack of schools and professional teachers in the rural areas, they have lower than average level of education in the cities. Recap on Inequality of education in rural areas widens urban-rural income disparity As a result, they are only able to take up low skilled jobs. They tend to work in the private sector, holding jobs in factories and the service industries. Due to the nature of factory jobs, the migrant workers work longer hours, yet have lower household incomes than the urban residents (Zara, 2014). They take up jobs that the urban residents are unwilling to do and live in very poor housing conditions. While they are needed for economic growth due to industrialization, particularly in the major cities, they do not enjoy the rights of urban residents and are not sufficiently protected either in or outside of work due to the fact that they do not own the Hukou of the city they are working in. Recap on Household registration system (Hukou system) .. Xinhua News (2012) reported that 0.5% of migrant workers were not paid on time or at all; only 14.3% received retirement benefits; 24% received work-related injury insurance. More than 40% of migrant workers also did not receive housing or housing subsidies supposedly given by their employers. (Sophie, 2012).
This 262-million-strong migrant worker population represents a group that is often systematically excluded from urban resources and opportunities, one of which is access to healthcare (Zara, 2014). According to the World Health Organization (2013), China is ranked close to the bottom in terms of the fairness of its healthcare system, appearing at 188 out of 191 countries. Migrant workers face significantly higher risks of getting ill as well as of not getting the needed treatment when they are ill. They often work for 15 hours a day, 7 days a week, receive minimal wages and have hideous working conditions, which often expose them to various types of occupational hazards (Zara, 2014). Workplace accidents are common, health insurance coverage is low, and paid sick leave is practically unheard of (Zara, 2014). A report released in 2006 showed that the average inpatient care cost per person-time for migrant workers was 4745.5 RMB, while the average monthly income was only 970 RMB (Zara, 2014).
According to the Hukou system (household registration system), if the workers want to permanently migrate to the city, they have to buy a house in the city to get a urban Hukou. However, due to the high prices of houses, migrant workers might not be able to afford a house even if they work for their whole lives. As a result, their Hukou will still be the one of the rural state and when they retire, most of the migrant workers will have to return to their hometown to farm. Due to the long period of working in the city, these migrant workers have lost their skills to work in the farm hence endangering their livelihood in the rural area.
This 262-million-strong migrant worker population represents a group that is often systematically excluded from urban resources and opportunities, one of which is access to healthcare (Zara, 2014). According to the World Health Organization (2013), China is ranked close to the bottom in terms of the fairness of its healthcare system, appearing at 188 out of 191 countries. Migrant workers face significantly higher risks of getting ill as well as of not getting the needed treatment when they are ill. They often work for 15 hours a day, 7 days a week, receive minimal wages and have hideous working conditions, which often expose them to various types of occupational hazards (Zara, 2014). Workplace accidents are common, health insurance coverage is low, and paid sick leave is practically unheard of (Zara, 2014). A report released in 2006 showed that the average inpatient care cost per person-time for migrant workers was 4745.5 RMB, while the average monthly income was only 970 RMB (Zara, 2014).
According to the Hukou system (household registration system), if the workers want to permanently migrate to the city, they have to buy a house in the city to get a urban Hukou. However, due to the high prices of houses, migrant workers might not be able to afford a house even if they work for their whole lives. As a result, their Hukou will still be the one of the rural state and when they retire, most of the migrant workers will have to return to their hometown to farm. Due to the long period of working in the city, these migrant workers have lost their skills to work in the farm hence endangering their livelihood in the rural area.
Vicious cycle of poverty - effects on the offspring
For those migrant workers who are able to afford renting a house in the cities and start a family, the inequality in welfare will also be passed down to their children - the second generation of migrant workers. According to the Hukou system which states that "Every child is awarded the same hukou as that of the birth mother.", the children will also have a rural Hukou and not be untitled to the rights of the city inhabitants. The only difference is that unlike their parents, these children do not even have the ability to return to the village to work since they grew up in the city. Hence, their only livelihood will be in the city.
China's migrant children have a high drop out of school rate per cent. This is mostly because their parents - poor migrant workers- are unable to pay the high fees of receiving education in a city. Moreover, it is a rule that teenagers have to take the entrance exam back in their hometown. However, due to the inadequate education offered in the village, the chances of the children of migrant workers getting into university is low. With no university degree, they will then end up with a low skilled job like their parents and will not be able to have a better future - one that allows them to earn enough money to buy a house in the city and change their Hukou to receive city inhabitants' rights. The result of this is the vicious poverty cycle experienced by migrant workers' population.
A study has shown that the second generation of migrant workers would rather receive these unfair treatments and unequal education opportunities than to return to their homeland and do agricultural work. (Valerie, 2014). The 2010 survey found that in 20 million migrant workers, 61% of those aged below 20 (usually he offspring of the first generation of migrant workers) want to live permanently in the cities (Valerie, 2014).
China's migrant children have a high drop out of school rate per cent. This is mostly because their parents - poor migrant workers- are unable to pay the high fees of receiving education in a city. Moreover, it is a rule that teenagers have to take the entrance exam back in their hometown. However, due to the inadequate education offered in the village, the chances of the children of migrant workers getting into university is low. With no university degree, they will then end up with a low skilled job like their parents and will not be able to have a better future - one that allows them to earn enough money to buy a house in the city and change their Hukou to receive city inhabitants' rights. The result of this is the vicious poverty cycle experienced by migrant workers' population.
A study has shown that the second generation of migrant workers would rather receive these unfair treatments and unequal education opportunities than to return to their homeland and do agricultural work. (Valerie, 2014). The 2010 survey found that in 20 million migrant workers, 61% of those aged below 20 (usually he offspring of the first generation of migrant workers) want to live permanently in the cities (Valerie, 2014).
Case study of Qingyao - a offspring of migrant workers
One case study of such typical migrant workers' children is 15-year-old Zhang Qingyao. He was born in Shandong, a rural province and does not have the hukou of Shanghai, the urban city he is currently residing in. This meant that he is unable to take pursue tertiary studies in the city as he is unable to take the national college entrance examinations. However, just like the 61% of second generation of migrant workers, he do not want to return to Shangdong to take the examination as that will mean that he has to start afresh in Shandong's syllabus but all this while he was learning the Shanghai syllabus. He then chose to attend a vocational high school in Shanghai. However, this led to another worry. Vocational schools are usually for students who do not do well in their studies, since they're not old enough to work. Qingyao's mother revealed her worry, saying "Inevitably, these children are mischievous and I'm worried my son will get bad influences in that environment" (Valerie, 2014).
Solution to end the vicious cycle of poverty of the offspring.
New policy in Shanghai
This year, Shanghai started a new policy that allows the migrant workers to accumulate points based on their education levels and contributions to social security. An accumulation of 120 points will allow migrant workers to receive a Shanghai hukou hence enabling their children to take the national college examinations in Shanghai (Valerie, 2014). This meant that the second generation of migrant workers are able to study in Shanghai and not return to their homeland to take the national college examinations. More of them will then be able to get into a university since education in Shanghai is far better than education in the rural areas. Getting a Shanghai hukou also means that migrant workers will be able to buy a house in the future and Shanghai and officially live as a urban inhabitant of Shanghai and not just as a stratified group of people. This will efficiently end future problems of getting a low skilled job in China due to the lack of university degree and thus bring many migrant workers out of the poverty cycle.
However, this policy might not be able to benefit a large amount of migrant workers hence only improve the situation by a tiny bit. Just like Qingyao's case, his parents has low educational background since they are farmers back in their village and thus they cannot accumulate enough points for their hukou to be changed to Shanghai's. On the bright side, the policy will eradicate future problems of having a third generation of migrant workers as the second generation will mostly likely accumulate 120 points since their education are based in Shanghai where education is more accessible.
However, this policy might not be able to benefit a large amount of migrant workers hence only improve the situation by a tiny bit. Just like Qingyao's case, his parents has low educational background since they are farmers back in their village and thus they cannot accumulate enough points for their hukou to be changed to Shanghai's. On the bright side, the policy will eradicate future problems of having a third generation of migrant workers as the second generation will mostly likely accumulate 120 points since their education are based in Shanghai where education is more accessible.
Bibliography
Sophie, S. (2014). China Now Has More Than 260 Million Migrant Workers Whose Average Monthly Salary is 2,290 Yuan ($374.09). [on-line]. URL:
http://www.ibtimes.com/china-now-has-more-260-million-migrant-workers-whose-average-monthly-salary-2290-yuan-37409-1281559. (20 March 2014)
Valerie, T. (2014). China migrant workers' children face unequal education opportunities. [on-line]. URL: http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asiapacific/china-migrant-workers/1000498.html. (20 March 2014)
Zara, Z. (2014). The Health Status of Migrant Workers in China. [on-line]. URL: http://hir.harvard.edu/the-health-status-of-migrant-workers-in-china (21 March 2014)